Environmental problems in the Medieval world

There is a common misconception that the medieval period (8th–15th centuries) was stagnant in terms of technological and environmental development. Contrary to this medieval societies, both in the West and the East, faced significant ecological challenges, including deforestation, air and water pollution, and resource depletion resulting from population growth, that in turn followed climatic warming.

One of the key factors influencing medieval environmental changes was the Medieval Warm Period (800–1300 CE), a climatic phase that led to increased agricultural productivity, improved living standards, and urban expansion across Europe and North Africa. With a rising population, cities such as Paris, London, and Edinburgh grew significantly, increasing the demand for resources. Despite economic and social benefits, many people feared environmental degradation, much like today.

Deforestation had already begun before the medieval period, particularly due to Roman activities. By the 8th century, extensive forest clearing was taking place in England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire to support agriculture, city expansion, and industrial activities. In England, William the Conqueror’s Domesday Book (1086 CE) documents the vast clearing of forests for economic development. By the early 14th century, an estimated 70% of forests in parts of Western and Central Europe had been lost, primarily due to the need for farmland, the construction of waterwheels, and urban growth. 

The depletion of wood supplies eventually forced some societies, particularly in England, to seek alternative energy sources. This led to increased coal usage, which in turn caused significant air pollution. By 1285, Londoners were protesting against the burning of "Sea Coal" due to its harmful effects on air quality. Official complaints were lodged with the king, urging restrictions on its use. Similar issues likely occurred in mainland Europe, as coal mining settlements have been discovered in remote areas of Central Europe, suggesting that coal had become an essential resource for heating and industry. However, the Black Death in the mid-14th century temporarily reversed deforestation, as abandoned settlements allowed forests to regrow.

Water pollution was another major environmental concern, particularly in large, water-adjacent cities such as Alexandria, Mecca, and Cairo. Medieval scholars recognized the dangers of contaminated water, as evidenced by medical texts from as early as the 9th century. The North African physician Quisti ibn Qa wrote extensively on waterborne illnesses, highlighting growing concerns over pollution. Later, the polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) classified different types of water for drinking, cleaning, and cooking. This increasing awareness suggests that medieval societies were actively trying to manage water contamination, though rapid urbanization and economic pressures often exacerbated the problem.

This blog is based entirely on the paper Pollution & Deforestation in the Medieval World, by Katrina Fayrie, (January 20, 2025). Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/pollution-deforestation-medieval-world/ on January 28, 2025. The illustration shows a “Woodcutter,” in Heures à l’usage de Rome (Book of Hours for the Use of Rome), 1475-1500. Paris, Bibliothèque Mazarine, Ms 502 f. 12. Source : Biblissima, Public Domain.

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